CRISA AFRICAChapter 10: Performance enhancing drugs and the Nigerian sports scene by Olatunde O. A. Makanju - CRISA AFRICA

Chapter 4: Social and health implications of drug adulteration and piracy by Jacob Taiwo Akinmayowo

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So much has been done in the diagnosis, treatment and rehabilitation of those who abuse drugs through various publications, research works, conferences and programmes at local, national and international levels. One argument, which cannot be overlooked, is that “those who abuse drugs choose to abuse drugs and that they are probably exercising their rights to choose how they want to live“. This is the reason why we need to appreciate the contributions of those who know the dangers of drug abuse, have made tremendous contributions in dealing with the problems of drug abuse and choose never to abuse drugs. However, for most people, the impact of fake and adulterated drugs is problematic because they are, by far, exposed to the danger of fake and adulterated drugs because of the nefarious activities of others. For this reason, we need to focus attention on both drug abuse and drug adulteration and piracy because they are both related.
Historically, the war on fake or adulterated drugs in Nigeria started fill swing in the eighties when an increasing number of fake drugs were being sold indiscriminately (Odunsi 1989: 11). There is no doubt that the war against fake drugs is yet to be won. The damage that fake drugs have caused in our health care delivery system from a socio-psychological perspective is vital because faking and adulterating drugs are illegal acts perpetuated by human beings for human beings. It is vital to highlight crucial issues in this matter.

Chapter 3: Drug use and beliefs in the Nigerian construction industry by Emmanuel Achuenu & Ochinya O. Ojiji

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While it is universally accepted that drugs can be of tremendous benefit to man and society, it is also acknowledged that inappropriate use of drugs can do incalculable harm to man. The misuse and abuse affect mostly the individual, but the society is also affected in terms of the cost to society of the infrastructure for treatment, rehabilitation,social reintegration and after care of the drug dependent person (Emafo, 1990). In the present day societies, youths and adults use and abuse various types of drug especially pressure-producing substances or those with relative anxieties due to the tensions inherent in modern life. In addition to coffee, tobacco and alcohol which are seen as daily essentials amphetamines are taken to stay awake, barbiturates to go to sleep, Indian hemp and others are taken as panacea for stress of daily life (Fabiyi and Oladimeji, I993). The problems should be seen as a multifactorial one, a psychosocial or interpersonal and sometimesmedical problem (Adeyanji, I981).
It has been reported by Obot(1993a) that high proportions of patients admitted into hospitals because of acute psycho reactions had histories of cannabis (Indian hemp) abuse. Even though Indian hemp is associated with many health and social problems, alcohol is the substance with the highest ‘index of harm’ and the most widely used among Nigerian youths as well as adults.

Chapter 2: Alcoholism and labour loss estimation in Nigeria by A. O. Akerele

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The present economic problem of Nigeria is not unconnected with problems of limited national material, financial and labour resources. Even the limited resources are wasted daily. The way forward however, is the identification of the sources of these wastage and remedies to the problems thus created. Direct to the focus of this paper is the labour loss in Nigeria, which rears its head as a result of alcoholism. Accordingly we analyze theoretically the determinants of work or labour loss. Employment of empirical method for the estimation of labour loss supports the outcomes of our theoretical analysis. It is our candid opinion that the disclosure of labour loss associated with alcoholism will raise the consciousness of governments, organizations and individuals towards the task of minimizing the colossal loses emanating from labour alcoholism and the unrestricted consumption of alcoholic beverages.

Chapter 1: General characteristics and alcohol concentration of some brands of beer brewed and bottled in Nigerian L. A. D. Duru & V. O. Nwabisi

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Beer is a generic name for alcohol beverages made by fermentation of extracts derived from cereal grains and/or other starchy materials. In most parts of the world, the beverage is known by various names. In Europe ,it is called ale, in Benue State and some northern states of Nigeria it is called burukutu, piro in Edo State, otika in Yoruba and Kaffir beer in South Africa.
There are two standard processes in beer production – the malting process and the brewing process.The main ingredient in beer brewing is the malt derived from barley in a process known as malting. In Nigeria, Sorghurn or maize has been used with success. Analysis of beer covers every aspect of beer production, and the analysis at each step acts as quality control measure to ensure consistency in production.The techniques and methods of analysis have been reviewed. Some standards of beer analysis have been approved by scientific associations. These include the Association of Analytical Chemist: (AOAC), American Society of Brewing Chemists (ASBC), European Brewing Convention (EBC),and Institute of Brewing Analysis Committee(IBAC), etc. Analysis of beer is employed in the detection of poisoning in beer,e.g., metals like lead, iron, copper, zinc, and arsenic.

Chapter 16: Rapid situation assessment by Moruf Adelekan

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Rapid assessment and response (RAR) is a means for delineating the extent and nature of social and health problems. An immediate response to the identified needs is an integral part of the assessment. Rapid situation assessment is the application of RAM to specific problems in specific locations. Needs assessment is the systematic appraisal of the type, depth and scope of a problem. Resource assessment is the systematic appraisal of the response (funds, people, buildings, knowledge) that are either available or required to ameliorate the problem.

Chapter 15: Social change, urbanization and drug use among Nigerian youth by Isidore S. Obot

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Interest in drug abuse as a. social problem area began with the observation, among mental health experts, that many of the young people admitted into psychiatric hospitals because of psychotic reactions had been involved with Cannabis. Data collected from patient files were published affirming the observation that cannabis use was associated with psychosis (Asuni, 1964; Lambo, 1965; Boroffka, 1966). Most of the victims of this “new” problem were described as artisans, musicians political thugs, and other categories of youth living in urban areas.

More than anything else, this first generation of drug use research in Nigeria created the persistent image of cannabis as a drug that “makes you mad.” There was little attempt at the time to show how and under what conditions cannabis use led to the observed mental health outcomes.
Nevertheless, other drugs became implicated in what researchers and policy makers believed was a rising trend in psychiatric morbidity in the country. For example, Oviasu (1976), also using hospital records. noted an increase in the abuse of stimulants by secondary school students. In an analysis of 491 eases involving the use of drugs by clients in one hospital and covering a period of four years. the author showed that amphetamines and “Proplus” (a preparation in tablet form with 50 mg of caffeine) were the most often abused stimulants. The presenting conditions in most of these cases seen at the hospital were toxic psychosis and anxiety state. Other studies in similar clinical settings showed that barbiturates (e.g., Chinese capsules“), mandrax (rnetaqualone combined with diphenthydrarnine), and several over-the-counter (OTC) drugs were abused in varying degrees by urban youth, and that alcohol abuse was principally a problem among older people.

Chapter 14: Nigeria’s drug laws and policy: implications for drug abuse prevention and control by Etannibi E. O. Alemika

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There has been a growing involvement of Nigerians in the production, distribution, use and abuse of illicit drugs during the past four decades. This has led to the enactment of drug control laws by Nigeria’s successive governments. However, the drug control laws and policy have not produced the desired result of curbing the production, trafficking and abuse of dangerous drugs and substances. The ineffectiveness of the country’s drug laws and policy may be attributed to several factors. Drug policy and laws in Nigeria are formulated and implemented without the benefit of rigorous knowledge and research on (a) the motives and pressures for the production, distribution or sales of dangerous drugs and substances; (b) the motives and pressures for the use and abuse of cocaine, heroin, psychotropic drugs and alcohol; (c) multiple causes of drug abuse (d) epidemiology (extent, trend, pattern) of drug abuse and drug -related problems within population (e) relative efficiency of competing strategies-demand and supply reduction programmes (f) capacity for the effective enforcement of legal provisions (g) social and individual costs and harms associated with the misuse of different dangerous drugs and substances (h) the international political economy of drug trade and control which mirrors the unequal political and economic power relations between the “developed” and “developing” nations.

The nation‘s drug laws have not been effective, because of too much faith in legal repression as a strategy for deterring the production, distribution and abuse of drugs. Furthermore the capacity of existing institutions to secure effective enforcement of legal provisions is either overrated or not given due consideration in policy formulation and implementation. Nigeria’s drug laws and policy are influenced more by concern for the punishment of drug producers, distributors and abusers. The prevention of production, distribution and use of dangerous drugs and substances is neglected. For example, the prevention of drug abuse and treatment of drug dependent persons receive inadequate resources from government.

Chapter 13: The changing nature of drug laws and drug law enforcement in Nigeria by Sam Obadiah Smah

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There is a compelling need to control the use of drugs, alcohol and other forms of psychoactive substances by individuals and groups in a given population over time. There are two approaches to this – one relates to demand reduction activities and the other that relates to the international interdiction activities of and by citizens of a country. Thus, drug use (and trafficking) must be seen, first of all, as a major social problem. If drug use by the population and trafficking in it are viewed as serious social, economic and political obstacles to the nation, then to that extent can steps to stall such activities be effectively coordinated and monitored.

It is well known, the world over, that drug and alcohol abuse affect not only the individual, but also the individuals family, his relations, friends and the community in which they live. In other words, an individual loses his health to drugs and alcohol, incurs losses in the form of family breakdown, increases likelihood of involvement in criminal behaviours, demand for social and legal and health care and services and involves in criminality to finance and sustain addiction.

The economic impacts of drug abuse are myriad. They range from distortions of the national economy generally, to specifically frustrating economic plans, monetary controls, inflation and devaluation. Colombia, Bolivia, Mexico, Panama and even the United States of America at various times have witnessed such trends especially due to money laundering. Politically, criminal activities are known to be financed to undermine legitimate business, corrupting public institutions and officials of government; and this makes it hard, if not impossible, to control drug use and abuse. Where government officials and drug barons are known to co-exist, drug control campaigns are frustrated and prevented while insurgencies are supported.

Chapter 5: Toddler alcohol use in Makurdi metropolis, Nigeria by Fred Tamen, B O. Ker, M. M. Orhungur, Elvis Ihaji & Francis Udzua

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In recent times, attention is being drawn to the phenomenon of toddler use of alcohol and other substances in Nigeria. For example, Ojiji et al (1993) in their study found that children as early as 4 months of age are given alcohol by the women brewers. This finding is something that was previously unthinkable because the very earlier studies were focused on young children (Onwuzurike, 1984; Mbosowo, 1988; Oviasu 1976; Olatawura and Odejide, 1974; Ogunremi and Okonofia, 1977; Akindele and Odejide, 1975; Nevadomsky, 1982; Ihezue, 1988a; Asuni, 1993). In the Oviasu’s study 62% of the respondents were under the age of 20. Oiatawura and Odejide, 1974 found drug abuse among secondary school students who abused stimulants such as amphetamines and caffeine. Similarly, Ogunremi and Okonofua( I977) in a study of University students reported a drug abuse rate of 26% among their sample. Another study of youths by Nevadomsky (1982) showed that 15% of female and 25% of male respondents used hypno-sedatives while more males used alcohol, marijuana and stimulants. Odejide (1977) and Anumonye (1980) found children between 11-14 years involved in the abuse of various drugs including alcohol.

Chapter 6: Psychoactive drug abuse among secondary school students in Osun state of Nigeria and the counseling implications by A. M. Olusankin

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Drug abuse (apart from general self medication, such as buying anti-malaria drugs without their being prescribed by a doctor) is mostly a covert activity. It is carried out in privacy, away from direct public gaze, or in venues where the practice is tolerated, accepted, or even positively encouraged.
Detection and recognition of drug abuse could be difficult for the untrained and uninitiated observer. They may never witness the effects of direct drug abuse and they may even easily overlook the physical and behavioral symptoms such as being due to some other caused. Perhaps only the symptoms of withdrawal may be seen, and these may be very similar to those brought about by other circumstances such as the stresses and pleasures of adolescence and therefore easily discounted. Folawiyo (1985) defines a drug as any substance other than food, which by its chemical nature, affects the structure or function of the living organism. From this perspective, the term may include any number of household, agricultural, and industrial chemicals. To a physician, a drug might be any substance used as a medicine in the treatment of physical or mental disease. When used in the context of drug abuse, the term becomes inflammatory. The meaning of drug becomes social rather than scientific. In its social sense when the term abuse is attached it takes on a negative connotation. Smith (1971) sees drug abuse as the use of any drug to the point where it interferes with the individual’s health or with his economic or social adjustment.

Chapter 7: Bankers attitude toward money laundering decree as drug-control strategy by Bakle Kumshin Tongnan & A. K. J. Ibanga

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The first negative effects of drugs began to manifest in early 60’s (Obot,1993), since then there has been a notable increase. To date, the drug problem in Nigeria has attracted both national and international concerns (Alernika, 1990, 1993; Atta, 1990; Obot 1993). Notably the market for drugs in Nigeria has grown substantially, the number of users in the core market has increased remarkably, so also the distribution system has expanded – new markets have opened up in different towns and villages.

The growth of the market, even in the face of high risk indicates the greater vitality of the enterprise. (Chamliss, 1977; Moore, 1977; Ibanga, 1998; Bassey, 1998). As described by Tirruner (1982), these drug enterprises comprise of a loose affiliation of businessman, politicians, union leaders and law enforcement officials who cooperate in the production and distribution of illegal goods and services for which there is a substantial consumer.
The returns from the sale of drugs are reinvested in drugs and the surplus profits are diversified into other businesses as well. One of the motivating factors for diversifying is the need to camouflage drug activities and their income. For a dealer to remain successful for any length of time he must diversify. These upper level dealers are usually entrepreneurs with a wide range of business interests in both sides of the law. This is why the rare arrest of a major drug dealer reveals a rather ordinary looking and ‘respectable’ businessman instead of a ‘merchant of death’.

Chapter 9: Mandatory testing of blood alcohol levels of drivers on Nigerian roads by L.A.D.Duru & I. B.Enweani

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The increase in the production and consumption of alcohol, has brought serious problems on the citizenry and the economy, the transport sector being the hardest hit. Many responsible governments have introduced laws imposing legal limits on the amount of alcohol that may be permissible in the blood of motorists. Nigerians are among the largest alcohol consumers in Africa and consequently Nigeria has the highest incidence of motor accidents. The Federal Government should enact legislations to limit the level of alcohol in the blood of drivers to 50mg/100ml. Government should in addition introduce the use of modem equipment for the analysis of blood and urine samples from drivers to check frequent incidents of accidents on our roads, due to the effect of alcohol. The use of Intoximeter Mark IV is recommended.

The adverse effect of increased consumption of alcohol on the citizenry, particularly, the effect on the transport sector of the economy; has forced many responsible governments of many countries to introduce laws imposing legal limits on the amount of alcohol that may be present in the blood of motorists and motorcyclists. In Nigeria, alcohol consumption by the citizenry has increased enormously since the last decade. This has been brought about by many sources of alcohol into the market. The production and sale of our local gin called “Ogogoro” is no longer prohibited or called illicit gin. This is very popular in Nigeria, especially within the riverine states of Nigeria. The palm wine is tapped and sold within the Southern States. With its successful preservation and bottling it is now common in the Northern States (Duru and Anyika, 1981). With the proliferation of many brewing industries throughout Nigeria, beer has become a common commodity especially now that the standard of living of many Nigerians has risen since the past decade. Through all these sources, Nigerians have become the largest alcohol consumers in Africa.

Chapter 8: Tobacco smoking and labour-relations in Nigeria: implication for a Virile industrial productivity by I. A. Jimoh

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Tobacco is grown as an annual crop in Nigeria. Its leaves are usually processed in various ways for smoking, chewing, snuffing and extracting of nicotine. The common forms of tobacco are cigarettes, cigars and pipes. The history of tobacco industry in Nigeria can be traced to about 1904 when it first started as an imported item. Later, a depot was established by the British-American Tobacco (B.A.T.) for the distribution of the products locally. Since 1935 when a pilot Factory was established in a building owned by the British Cotton Growing Association (B.C.G.A.) at Osogbo (now the capital city of Osun State), there has been a steady increase in the cultivation of tobacco in Nigeria. This was borne out of the response to increasing demands. Two years later, the larger Ibadan factory was opened and the Nigerian tobacco Company (N.T.C.) eventually became incorporated as the successor to B.A.T. in 1951 (Di Domenico, 1973).

Nigerian Tobacco Company (NTC) was the only manufacturing company in Nigeria until 1962 when the Kwara Tobacco Company (now the International Tobacco Company – I.T.C.) was established in Ilorin. Moreso, there are, at present, two major tobacco manufacturing companies in Nigeria. The first is the Nigerian Tobacco Company (N.T.C.) with its two factories in Ibadan and Zaria. The Ibadan factory, has, however, folded up since 29th December, 1994 due largely to the poor state of the country’s economy, and lie consequent decline in consumer spending power (Sunday Champion, 1995). The other one is the International Tobacco Company with its factory
heated in Ilorin.

About 96 per cent of the raw tobacco leaves processed at the Nigerian Tobacco factories are grown locally by the independent tobacco farmers. The remaining 4 per cent is the flue-cured tobacco imported from U.S.A. and Canada as a supplement for blending purposes (National Concord, 1991).

Chapter 10: Performance enhancing drugs and the Nigerian sports scene by Olatunde O. A. Makanju

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According to Makanju (1993), the employment of drugs in sport comes under four heading: “(a) therapeutic usage in the treatment of ailments, (b) usage for-performance continuation purposes when athletes are incapacitated by injuries, (c) social and recreational use, and (d) usage for enhancement” (p. 56). Also out of the four divisions, only those of social/recreational use and performance enhancement has been referred to as “doping” or “drug abuse.” Doping means the use of chemicals or substances with a view to improve an athlete’s mental and or physical capabilities/conditions, and thus enhance athletic performance. On the other hand “substance abuse” is a reference to the occasional or habitual use of psychoactive substance(s) leading directly to the experience of harmful effects or, to the experience of indirect harm from the social or economic consequences of involvement with such substances. However, the use of performance enhancement drugs in sports is more complex and complicated than these definitions “make out. For example, three general classes of drugs have been identified as being involved in sport: these are restorative, additive and recreational drugs. “Restorative drugs permit people to approximate their normal functioning, additives appear to augment the persons‘ physio-chemical processes and recreational substances are utilized in leisure for a variety of reasons ranging from pure pleasure to simple curiosity” (WHO 1993). It therefore follows that the use of drugs in sports can involve licit
and illicit, and social or therapeutic substances, and yet, any of the classes could be involved in doping.

Chapter 11: Causes and control of drug abuse by athletes by K. Venkateswarlu & Vehcit Dasha

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The use of performance enhancing drugs in sports is only a recent manifestation of an old problem. Indians and Asian Indians, chewed ‘cocoa and other leaves‘. Australian aborigines ate ‘Pituri’ plant, Ancient Greeks used stimulants. These different people at different times used these substances for their stimulating and anti-fatiguing effects to enhance performance (Williams, 1974). Boxers used a mixture of brandy and cocaine along with strychnine tablets to enhance performance in the middle and late 19th century (Asken, 1988; Venkateswarlu, 1996, 1997).

Although the use of these drugs was started centuries ago, it has become extremely wide spread
only in recent years. In light of widespread abuse of drugs by athletes and because of the dangerous effects of these drugs on health, the International Olympic Committee (IOC) has taken the responsibility of maintaining the integrity of the games For this purpose, the IOC established its medical commission to safeguard the health of the Olympic athletes in 1967. Despite the incessant efforts of the medical commission of the IOC to detect and control abuse of drugs in sports, sportsmen and women continue to use drugs to enhance their performance inspite of their knowledge of the dangerous consequences to use of drugs to their health. An attempt, therefore, is made in this paper to discuss the causative factors for drug abuse and the measures to control it in sports.

Chapter 12: Information dissemination in the control and treatment of substance abuse: the Theater therapy approach by Jacob Manase Agaku

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Drug and substance abuse has become a common feature of the Nigerian nation. But the approach to information dissemination, control and treatment has been largely from a scientific or medical perspective. The causes of the malaise are many and show that the social environment plays a greater role in causing and sustaining the problem. What is needed to control this is the human angle. This it the advantage that theater has over other methods.

Theater has continued to be a medium of creative interaction that captivates through the physical presence and contact; it evolves around the spiritual, psychological, to the physical. It is an approach appropriate to mental innuendoes and spiritual fulfillment. Therefore, it is the human touch, as distinct from the scientific or medical treatment, that is required in information, control and treatment of the abuse of drugs and other substances. Then why not the theater therapy for a change?

PERSPECTIVES ON DRUGS, ALCOHOL AND SOCIETY IN AFRICA, VOLUME 1

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CONTENTS
1. General characteristics and alcohol concentration of some brands of beer brewed and bottled in Nigerian by L. A. D. Duru & V. O. Nwabisi

2. Alcoholism and labour loss estimation in Nigeria by A. O. Akerele

3. Drug use and beliefs in the Nigerian construction industry by Emmanuel Achuenu & Ochinya O. Ojiji

4. Social and health implications of drug adulteration and piracy by Jacob Taiwo Akinmayowo

5. Toddler alcohol use in Makurdi metropolis, Nigeria by Fred Tamen, B O. Ker, M. M. Orhungur, Elvis Ihaji & Francis Udzua

6. Psychoactive drug abuse among secondary school students in Osun state of Nigeria and the counseling implications by A. M. Olusankin

7. Bankers attitude toward money laundering decree as drug-control strategy by Bakle Kumshin Tongnan & A. K. J. Ibanga

8. Tobacco smoking and labour-relations in Nigeria: implication for a Virile industrial productivity by I. A. Jimoh

9. Mandatory testing of blood alcohol levels of drivers on Nigerian roads by L.A.D.Duru & I. B.Enweani

10. Performance enhancing drugs and the Nigerian sports scene by Olatunde O. A. Makanju

11. Causes and control of drug abuse by athletes by K. Venkateswarlu & Vehcit Dasha
. .
12. Information dissemination in the control and treatment of substance abuse: the Theatre therapy approach by Jacob Manase Agaku

13. The changing nature of drug laws and drug law enforcement in Nigeria by Sam Obadiah Smah

14. Nigeria’s drug laws and policy: implications for drug abuse prevention and control by Etannibi E. O. Alemika

15. Social change, urbanization and drug use among Nigerian youth by Isidore S. Obot

16. Rapid situation assessment by Moruf Adelekan

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